Vitamin A

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By the Nutriveda editorial team · Updated 5 November 2026

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that your eyes, skin, mucous membranes and immune system need, and it comes in two forms: preformed vitamin A (retinol) from animal foods and provitamin A carotenoids, mainly beta-carotene, from plants. EFSA sets a population reference intake of 750 µg a day for men and 650 µg for women, and an upper limit of 3,000 µg a day for preformed vitamin A. Liver, eggs, butter and dairy bring retinol. Sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkin, red peppers and dark leafy greens bring beta-carotene, which the body converts into vitamin A in the gut. The risks sit at the two ends: too little where diets are poor, too much from liver and supplements.

What vitamin A does

Vitamin A is part of rhodopsin, the light-sensitive protein in the retina, which is why the first sign of deficiency is poor vision in dim light. It also supports immune function, cell communication, growth and reproduction (NIH ODS).

The two forms behave differently. Preformed vitamin A (retinol and retinyl esters) is found in dairy, eggs, fish and organ meats. Provitamin A carotenoids, which are beta-carotene, alpha-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin, are plant pigments the body turns into vitamin A. Lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin are carotenoids too, but they are not converted. To compare the forms, NIH uses retinol activity equivalents (RAE): 1 µg RAE equals 1 µg of retinol, 2 µg of beta-carotene from supplements or 12 µg of beta-carotene from food.

The EU allows these health claims for foods that are at least a source of vitamin A (Regulation (EU) 432/2012):

• “Vitamin A contributes to normal iron metabolism”
• “Vitamin A contributes to the maintenance of normal mucous membranes”
• “Vitamin A contributes to the maintenance of normal skin”
• “Vitamin A contributes to the maintenance of normal vision”
• “Vitamin A contributes to the normal function of the immune system”
• “Vitamin A has a role in the process of cell specialisation”

How much you need a day

Group	EFSA reference intake (PRI), µg RE/day	EFSA upper limit, preformed vitamin A, µg/day	For reference: NIH RDA, µg RAE/day
Men	750	3,000	900
Women	650	3,000	700
Pregnancy	700	3,000	770
Breastfeeding	1,300	3,000	1,300
Children and teenagers	250 (7-11 months) to 750 (boys 15-17)	600 (4-11 months) to 2,600 (15-17 years)	–

Sources: EFSA 2015 (reference intakes), EFSA 2024 (upper limit), NIH ODS (RDA for adults 19-50). EFSA gives vitamin A in retinol equivalents (RE), NIH and USDA in RAE; for retinol from animal foods, 1 µg is 1 µg in both. The upper limit covers retinol and retinyl esters from food and supplements, for all adults including pregnant, breastfeeding and postmenopausal women. EFSA could not set an upper limit for beta-carotene, but it advises smokers to avoid supplements that contain it.

Best food sources

Food	Main form	Vitamin A, 100 g	Portion	Vitamin A per portion
Beef liver, raw	retinol	4,970 µg RAE	113 g (4 oz)	5,616 µg RAE
Sweet potato, baked in skin	beta-carotene	961 µg RAE	1 medium, 114 g	1,096 µg RAE
Carrots, raw	beta-carotene	835 µg RAE	1 medium, 61 g	509 µg RAE
Pumpkin, raw	beta-carotene	426 µg RAE	1 cup cubes, 116 g	494 µg RAE
Cantaloupe melon, raw	beta-carotene	169 µg RAE	1 cup cubes, 160 g	270 µg RAE
Red bell pepper, raw	beta-carotene	157 µg RAE	1 medium, 119 g	187 µg RAE
Spinach, raw	beta-carotene	469 µg RAE	1 cup, 30 g	141 µg RAE
Butter, salted	mostly retinol	684 µg RAE	1 tbsp, 14.2 g	97 µg RAE
Egg, whole	retinol	160 µg RAE	1 large, 50 g	80 µg RAE
Kale, raw	beta-carotene	241 µg RAE	1 cup, 21 g	51 µg RAE

Source: USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy, checked 5 November 2026: beef liver FDC 169451, sweet potato FDC 168483, carrots FDC 170393, pumpkin FDC 168448, cantaloupe FDC 169092, red bell pepper FDC 170108, spinach FDC 168462, butter FDC 173410, egg FDC 171287, kale FDC 168421. Portions are USDA household measures; values per portion are calculated and rounded.

For everyday eating, the orange vegetables do the heavy lifting. One medium baked sweet potato gives more than a full day’s reference intake, and one carrot or a cup of pumpkin covers most of a woman’s. Spinach, kale, red peppers, eggs and butter add smaller amounts. Liver is in a different league: a single 113 g portion is almost twice the adult upper limit. Try a pumpkin soup with ginger and turmeric, a chickpea and sweet potato curry or a warm lentil salad with roasted carrots.

Deficiency: signs and who is at risk

The first sign of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. The most common clinical sign is xerophthalmia, which can progress to permanent blindness. In 2013, 29% of children aged 6 months to 5 years in low- and middle-income countries were deficient, with 48% in sub-Saharan Africa and 44% in South Asia (NIH ODS).

Other groups at risk:

• Premature babies, who are born with low liver stores.
• People with cystic fibrosis. Up to 90% have pancreatic insufficiency, and 2% to 13% of children and teenagers with the condition are deficient.
• People taking orlistat, a weight-loss drug that reduces the absorption of vitamin A, beta-carotene and the other fat-soluble vitamins.

Supplements: when they make sense

Food comes first. EFSA says supplemental beta-carotene in the general population should be limited to meeting vitamin A requirements.

• Medical need. In cystic fibrosis, lifelong vitamin A is part of standard care, typically 750 to 3,000 µg RAE a day depending on age, set by the care team (NIH ODS).
• Eye formulas. In the AREDS trial, people at high risk of advanced age-related macular degeneration who took a mix with beta-carotene, vitamins C and E, zinc and copper had a 25% lower risk of advanced disease over 5 years. In AREDS2, the formula without beta-carotene protected just as well. This is a decision for an eye doctor.
• Read the label. Only the retinol or retinyl ester part of a supplement (for example retinyl palmitate) counts toward the upper limit; beta-carotene does not.
• Smokers and beta-carotene. In the ATBC trial, 29,133 male smokers took 20 mg of beta-carotene a day for 5 to 8 years: lung cancer rose by 18% and deaths by 8%. In CARET, beta-carotene plus retinyl palmitate raised lung cancer by 28% in smokers and asbestos-exposed men. EFSA’s conclusion: smokers should avoid food supplements that contain beta-carotene. Beta-carotene from ordinary food has not been linked to harm.

Who should be careful

• Pregnancy. Preformed vitamin A above the upper limit, and retinoid drugs such as isotretinoin, can cause birth defects of the eye, skull, lungs and heart. NIH advises pregnant and breastfeeding women not to take more than 3,000 µg RAE (10,000 IU) a day from supplements. EFSA and the NHS both advise women who are pregnant, and EFSA also women planning a pregnancy, not to eat liver or liver products. Beta-carotene from vegetables is not part of this concern.
• Older adults and bones. The NHS says that more than an average of 1.5 mg (1,500 µg) a day over many years may make bones more likely to fracture later in life, and advises postmenopausal women and older men to stay below that from food and supplements combined.
• Regular liver eaters. The NHS advises eating liver or pâté no more than once a week. EFSA found that European populations are unlikely to exceed the upper limit if liver is eaten once a month or less.
• Signs of too much. Acute overdose, usually above 100 times the RDA, causes severe headache, blurred vision, nausea, dizziness, aching muscles and poor coordination. Long-term excess can cause dry skin, painful joints, fatigue and abnormal liver tests. A lot of beta-carotene can turn the skin yellow-orange (carotenodermia), which is harmless and fades when intake drops.
• Medicines. Acitretin (for psoriasis) and bexarotene (for skin effects of T-cell lymphoma) are retinoids and raise the risk of vitamin A toxicity when combined with vitamin A supplements. Tell your doctor about any supplement you take.

FAQ

What is vitamin A good for?

Vitamin A is needed for vision in dim light, skin, mucous membranes, the immune system, growth and reproduction. EU rules let foods that are a source of vitamin A say it contributes to normal vision, skin, immune function and iron metabolism.

Which foods are highest in vitamin A?

Liver is by far the richest source, with 4,970 µg RAE per 100 g of raw beef liver (USDA). Among plant foods, baked sweet potato (961 µg RAE per 100 g), carrots (835 µg), spinach (469 µg) and pumpkin (426 µg) stand out, all as beta-carotene.

Is vitamin A safe in pregnancy?

Vitamin A is needed in pregnancy, and EFSA’s reference intake rises to 700 µg a day. Too much preformed vitamin A can harm the baby, so the upper limit of 3,000 µg a day applies, liver and liver products are best avoided, and supplements should be ones your doctor or midwife has approved.

Related entries and articles

• Sweet potato, carrot and pumpkin
• Spinach, kale and bell peppers
• Eggs and butter
• Vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K – the other fat-soluble vitamins
• Fish oil – and why cod liver oil also counts as vitamin A
• Pumpkin soup with ginger and turmeric
• Chickpea and sweet potato curry
• Warm lentil salad with roasted carrots and feta

Sources

1. USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy: Beef, variety meats and by-products, liver, raw (FDC 169451). fdc.nal.usda.gov
2. USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy: Sweet potato, cooked, baked in skin, flesh, without salt (FDC 168483); Carrots, raw (FDC 170393); Pumpkin, raw (FDC 168448). fdc.nal.usda.gov
3. USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy: Melons, cantaloupe, raw (FDC 169092); Peppers, sweet, red, raw (FDC 170108); Spinach, raw (FDC 168462); Kale, raw (FDC 168421). fdc.nal.usda.gov
4. USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy: Butter, salted (FDC 173410); Egg, whole, raw, fresh (FDC 171287); Fish oil, cod liver (FDC 173577). fdc.nal.usda.gov
5. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements: Vitamin A and Carotenoids, Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. ods.od.nih.gov
6. EFSA NDA Panel (2015). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for vitamin A. EFSA Journal 13(3):4028. efsa.europa.eu
7. EFSA NDA Panel (2024). Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and β-carotene. EFSA Journal 22(6), doi 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8814. doaj.org
8. EFSA: Overview on Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, version 11 (August 2025). efsa.europa.eu
9. Commission Regulation (EU) No 432/2012 – permitted health claims. eur-lex.europa.eu
10. NHS: Vitamin A. nhs.uk

This page is for information only and is not medical or dietary advice.